Abstract
Background: The Azusa Street revival and its fruitfulness have been accorded honours and impacts far greater and more significant than historical contexts within the ancient identifications of the foundational manifestations of the move and historical imprints of the Spirit of God.
Objectives: This article shows that Pentecostalism, within the Spirit leadership perspective, is older and broader than New Testament Christianity in its various forms, including modern Pentecostalism, through the anciency of the Holy Spirit.
Method: A descriptive and reflective approach is applied in the study. The Second Temple period (STP) is used as a historical anchor for the Holy Spirit towards the New Testament era up to modern Pentecostalism.
Results: The study reveals that while Pentecostalism is important, the Spirit of God in the phases of His manifestations should not be limited to the New Testament Christian era, especially to the section characterised by Pentecostalism.
Conclusion: The STP should not be seen as an era of silence for the Spirit of God, as Pentecostalism is not something born from nowhere, but part of the journey of the Spirit of God, which also includes the Second Temple era, inheriting from the scope of the entire Old Testament.
Contribution: The article broadens the historicity of the Holy Spirit before the New Testament and modern Pentecostalism.
Keywords: Second Temple period; Holy Spirit; leadership; Pentecostalism; New Testament era; Christianity; Azusa Street Revival; modern Pentecostalism; Spirit of God.
Introduction
Azusa street revival challenge
The Azusa Street Revival1 and its fruitfulness have been accorded honours and impacts far greater and more significant than historical contexts within the ancient identifications of the foundational manifestations of the move and historical imprints of the Spirit of God. Seymour, too, has become a prominent figure in the history of modern Pentecostalism (Martin 2024), often portrayed subjectively and superficially, much like Christopher Columbus, who was biasedly declared the man who discovered the American continent, disregarding the pre-existing populations. Instead of contextualising the history of Christopher Columbus within imperialism and recognising the pre-existence of the American continent (Brink 2018), modern Pentecostalism inherits this attitude from the birth of New Testament Pneumatology as if the Spirit of God was inactive before Acts 2 and the emergence of the Church age (Green 2012).
Pentecostalism features challenge
This article, in the context of objectivity, aims to show that features of Pentecostalism within the Spirit of God leadership perspective are older and broader than New Testament Christianity in its various forms, including classical Pentecostalism (first wave), the charismatic movement (second wave) and the charismatic renewal movement (third wave), which are identified with modern Pentecostalism (Mashau 2013:2). It focuses on liberating the Holy Spirit from the confines of the New Testament to a historical flow, recognising that the Spirit of God has been active throughout all phases of time, including the Second Temple period (STP) (Levinson 1995a).
Early Judaism and early Christianity challenge
Moreover, within the broader context of asserting the STP with various conceptions of the Spirit of God,2 the following has contributed to the lack of attention (Levison & Rabens 2012):
Scholars viewed the early Judaism period as merely a background serving early Christianity instead of a field of study in its own right. They also wrongly assumed that Jews believed the Spirit of God had withdrawn and prophecy had ceased during the Greco-Roman era.3 References to the Spirit in early Judaism have recently become accessible in reliable editions and various translations, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls,4 Pseudepigrapha, Philo, Talmud and others.5 These perspectives provide the foundational rethinking necessary to approach the world view of the ‘Holy’ Spirit leadership in the historicity of modern Pentecostalism through the lens of the STP (Pitts & Pollinger 2013).
Foundations of the holy spirit challenge
As Pentecostalism can be found in all major historical trends of the Christian Church – early church, Middle Ages, Reformation, and post-Reformation (Mashau 2013:2) – it is equally important to realise that the foundations, being and workings of the Holy Spirit or the Spirit of God cannot be originated (Gn 1:1–2) and limited to the New Testament phases of the Church. Such a perspective would be a contradiction, isolating the Holy Spirit from the deep, rich phases that predate the Apostolic Church (Warfield 1972:2). Second Temple Period context, its influence on Paul’s understanding of the Holy Spirit, foundational contestations that benefitted Christianity and modern Pentecostalism: two-fold law perspective, Pioneer of Synagogue perspective, resurrection perspective, existence of angels’ perspective and Josephus Prophetic gift perspective are key focus of this writing.
Second Temple Period context
The STP, spanning from the Babylonian exile to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, represents a broadening reality of the Spirit of God’s leadership in history before the Early Church, Middle Ages, Reformation, Post-Reformation and Modern Pentecostalism. In the Christian worldview, it is a specific period within the Old Testament: 516 BCE to 70 CE (Flusser 2007:3). Other scholars outside the Christian worldview identify it as ‘the Judaism period of the Hebrew Bible’ (Schiffman 2004:429), asserting that ‘Judaism is not founded on the Bible; but the Bible is founded on Judaism’ (Leibowitz 1992:1–12). As such, this is not a historical era of one dimension or perspective, but an era in which different perspectives emerged (Grabbe 2010:1–28).
It is an era that brooded and birthed groupings such as the Sadducees and Pharisees, known in the New Testament, and others like the Essenes, Sicarii and Zealots, which are not mentioned in the Christian worldview (Grabbe 2021). The proponents of the Christian Apostles’ doctrine of the Holy Spirit, like Paul, were trained and equipped as Pharisees during their pre-Christian formative stages, a grouping within the Second Temple historicity of Judaism (Baumgarten 1983). Its beliefs, which are underpinned by a two-fold law: written and oral, along with the extremism of the Essenes and other groupings outside the canonized Bible and New Testament, help in grasping the perspective of ‘uncapturing’6 the doctrine of the ‘Holy’ Spirit leadership in the historicity of modern Pentecostalism, New Testament, and Apostolic age through the lens of the STP (Green 2012).
Understanding the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, the central figure of Pentecostalism, as not originating from the New Testament era, Christian age or Apostolic age, but from the Second Temple contestations and even before, and identifying Christian doctrines or beliefs that have positive translations from Pharisaism and other groupings such as the Essenes, strengthens the argument that modern Pentecostalism, through the emphasis on the Holy Spirit, cannot be divorced from the Second Temple context and earlier periods (Levinson 2017).
The Second Temple period influence on Paul’s understanding of the holy spirit
The Old Testament’s message of the Spirit towards the messianic age of salvation (Is 32:15, 44:3; Ezk 36:25–27, 39:28–29; Jl 2:28–29)7 persisted into the STP (Song of Sol. 17:37, 18:7; TLevi 18:7; TJud 24:2). The key question is whether the literature of the STP influenced Paul. Ancient Jewish sources, including Qumran, apocalyptic, and early rabbinic literature,8 likely influenced Paul’s understanding of the Spirit. Paul, sharing the apocalyptic worldview of his contemporaries,9 developed his eschatological pneumatology through his experiences with the Holy Spirit in his life and the churches. This development cannot be separated from the foundational influences of the STP (Green 2012).
Broad literary categories such as ancient versions, Dead Sea Scrolls, apocalyptic literature, Jewish apocryphal writings and early rabbinic literature are analysed for their ‘spirit’ language and potential influence on Paul’s understanding of the eschatological role of the Holy Spirit. The foundational identities and beliefs of the Pharisees are essential bridges from the STP to the New Testament era. Understanding Pharisaic doctrinal beliefs, such as the two-fold view, provides important perspectives on the doctrine of the Holy Spirit’s leadership in the history of modern Pentecostalism through the lens of the STP (Maston 2010).
Second Temple foundational contestations that benefited christianity and modern pentecostalism
Two-fold perspective
The written and oral law form the twin foundational identities of the Pharisees’ doctrine (Basser 2012:174; Grabbe 1996:41–44; Nickelsburg 2003:165), embracing the Pentateuch through their perspectives. Both approaches10 are seen as complementary, consisting of the written law and the oral law, which includes the teachings of the prophets and the oral tradition11 of the Jewish people (Mpeta 2022:2). The teachings of the Prophets should be viewed with recognition of the Spirit behind their role, as the Prophets cannot operate effectively without the guidance of the Spirit (Razafiarivory 2020). Therefore, the prophetic teachings and oral traditions within the Pharisees’ oral and written law must be understood with the impact of the Spirit in mind (Grabbe 2003).
It is crucial to recognise the Spirit of God in the doctrine of the Pharisees. This recognition provides a broad-based view that the Spirit of God was active during the Second Temple era, influencing the Pharisees and their contemporaries. As Epstein (1986:96) notes, the Pharisees believed that if the Torah included the oral law, interpreters could discover its true meaning from the written text as applied to their times. These interpreters, seeking true meaning from both the written and oral law, were guided by the Spirit of God.
The Pharisees believed that if the Torah only meant the written text of the five books of Moses, it would be impossible to obey under new conditions and realities (Epstein 1986:96). Their resistance to the rigidity of the written law through the oral law suggests the Spirit of God provided wisdom beyond the written law. The oral tradition, as the carrier and accomplisher of the written law’s purpose, relies on the work of the Spirit of God. Different conditions can only be met through the oral tradition with the Spirit of God at work. This makes the Pharisees’ approach to the law two-fold: propagating the oral tradition (Van Der Toorn 2023:385) and recognising the workings of the Spirit of God. Their perspective on the five books of Moses is progressive and people-conscious, embodying the oral tradition and acknowledging the Spirit of God.
Synagogue perspective
The realities of the diaspora and the spirit of oral law interpretation led to the flourishing of synagogues, supplementing the centrality of the Temple in Jerusalem (Epstein 1986:12). This scriptural interpretation resulted in a hermeneutic system relevant to the national reality and the need for worship continuity beyond the Temple (Mpeta 2022:2). Like the Prophetic Spirit and oral traditions, which could not be confined to one place, the emergence of the synagogue symbolises the Spirit of God’s wisdom through creativity beyond established institutions like the Temple.
The Pharisaic support for the emergence of synagogues demonstrates that their oral tradition was another dimension in which the Spirit of God was at work. The Pharisees’ leadership approach ensured that Judaism had a progressive approach to religious life. This progressive approach was guided by the Spirit of God through the written and oral law. While they valued the centrality of the Jerusalem Temple, there was a need to go beyond the physical temple. Josephus, as cited by Furstenburg (2004), shows that the Pharisees believed God could be worshipped even away from the Temple and outside Jerusalem, as evidenced by the existence of synagogues and the sending of money to the Temple.12 Otzen (1990:118) notes that the idea of universal priesthood emerged from the Pharisees’ people-conscious leadership. The Pharisees saw the need for religious worship beyond Jerusalem and the Temple, fostering the synagogue institution.
The synagogue affirmed the Pharisees’ progressive mindset. Otzen (1990:104) shows that synagogue worship allowed individual piety to express itself in ways impossible in Temple worship, expanding the scope of physical and religious expressions. The synagogue became a relevant institution for those scattered across the diaspora, reflecting the Pharisees’ belief that the law should be interpreted with relevance to new conditions. This innovation did not contradict the Temple’s centrality but supplemented it. The Pharisees, with their two-fold view, became the relevant religious group pioneering synagogue worship outside traditional Temple worship in Jerusalem. They perceived the law as the norm for every detail in an individual’s life.
The emergence of synagogues was not intended to replace Temple worship but to supplement it. The centrality of the Temple13 was upheld, but a more universal approach was needed. Otzen (1990:103) shows that synagogue worship was meant to supplement Temple worship. The synagogue, pioneered by the Pharisees’ leadership, covered dimensions the Temple could not. Epstein (1986:12) notes that the synagogue, with its elaborate liturgy, could take the place of the Temple for prayer and worship. This innovation, born from the oral law perspective, reflects the Pharisees’ people-conscious leadership within the developmental process of the Jewish people’s holistic nature.
The resurrection perspective
The notion of the resurrection of the dead is one of the most critical issues in the history of the Jewish people (Chilton 2019). The Pharisees, a religious sect, also anchored their religious identity through the belief in the resurrection of the dead.14 As a group zealous about the unfolding and interpretation of the law, they firmly held this belief (Johnson 1985:17). This belief became one of the sentiments that defined the identity of the Pharisees within the scope of religious life in Second Temple Judaism and beyond (Sinniscalchi 2020). Although they had a conservative attitude towards political and religious issues, this did not prevent them from propagating the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead among the Jewish people at large.15
The doctrine of the resurrection of the dead may seem minor, but within the sect of the Pharisees, it was a doctrine they could not compromise (Mpeta 2022:4). This perspective is evident in the New Testament, where Saint Paul (Ac 23:6–8) shows his historical identity as a Pharisee. He uses the issue of the resurrection of the dead to divide the unity between the Sadducees and the Pharisees, aiming to affirm that he deserves to be charged. By using this issue, it is shown that the Pharisees, who were in unity with the Sadducees, needed to reconsider their view of him as an enemy. Whether the writing is correct or not, the relevant point is that the Pharisees and the belief in the resurrection of the dead were inseparable. It is no wonder that the Pharisees found it impossible to continue seeing Paul as a person against their standpoint (Luhrmann 1989).
In principle, the Pharisees’ belief in the resurrection of the dead was one of the complex ingredients that collectively established the roots of their identity. Nickelsburg (2003:163) also shows that the Pharisaic belief in the resurrection of the body is attested in the New Testament. Therefore, within their beliefs, the resurrection of the dead emerged as part of their doctrinal package, impacting even the scope of Christianity.
Angels’ perspective
As angels appear throughout scripture, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Revelation, the belief in the existence of angels has been sustained by groups such as the Pharisees, in contestation against groups like the Sadducees, who were antagonistic towards this doctrinal stance (Buttigieg 2023:83). Prophetic spirit has also been viewed as an angel according to Philo of Alexander perspective (Levinson 1995a, 1995b). This too carries the foundational posture, which shows that aspects of Pentecostal characteristics with the divinity of the Spirit have been part of the features causing and effecting diverse views of the beliefs of the Pharisees and other groupings.
The Pharisees’ twofold approach seems to have been the source base of this identity and beliefs. No wonder, because of their progressive tendencies, their interpretation of the Torah continued to develop and remained a living force in Judaism (Grabbe 1996:44). Moreover, during various critical moments for the Jewish people, Epstein (1986:111) shows that it was the Pharisees who generated among the people a spirit that proved mightier than a sword and a loyalty that has stood the test of centuries. This Pharisaic action cannot be divorced from the spiritual dimensions recognising the spiritual hand beyond the scriptural stipulations.
This supernatural belief in angels cannot be seen as something far-fetched from the mindset conscious of the Spirit of God and its manifestation even through divine beings. Oral law can be perceived as a dimension that extended the uniqueness, inclusivity and freedom of other beliefs, such as the resurrection of the dead, the existence of angels and the prophetic realities inspired by the Spirit of God. Therefore, it is from this perspective that the Pharisees can also be associated with the doctrine of the existence of angels (Mpeta 2022:4), and the incubator of the Spirit of God working beyond the written law.
Angels perspective. Josephus’ prophetic gift perspective
The life of Josephus,16 within the Second Temple era, shows that the Spirit of God and its giftings were also a reality with discernible footprints. His religious upbringing from a priestly family indicates that spiritual life and spiritual awareness were central to the religiosity of the Jews of the Second Temple era. This demonstrates that the spiritual inheritance of the Old Testament cannot be separated from the Second Temple era and embraced solely by the emergence of the Christian era. The Spirit of God cannot be entirely silent to the hearts that had the foundational roots of God’s manifestation to their previous generations (Pitts & Pollinger 2013). Such a perspective falls within the understanding of the Spirit of God’s characteristics, which aim to transcend eras such as the STP.
Josephus’s historical path portrays him as a traitor to the Jewish people, and his mention does not carry a positive posture among the Jews at large (Rappaport 2007). However, the perspective of the Jewish people cannot entirely negate the positive aspects of Josephus’s identity and experiences. His study of three major sects shaped his spiritual life. His intervention as part of a delegation to Rome, pleading for priests on the wrong side of Roman law, shows the stature of someone with leadership qualities serving his nation. His appointment as the commissioner in Galilee portrays him as someone who was significant in national participation for the common good of his Jewish people. Therefore, Josephus was not just an ordinary person in both leadership and spiritual life (Thackeray 2024).
After surrendering to the Romans, Josephus found himself at a moment of defeat, with his life at the mercy of his captors. However, when Josephus was led into Vespasian’s presence, he dramatically prophesied that Vespasian would become the next emperor (J.W. 3.3.9; 399–401). This prophetic utterance became a reality as Vespasian was acclaimed emperor in A.D. 69 after Nero’s suicide in A.D. 68 (Helyer 2002:339).
This prophetic gift through Josephus undoubtedly links with his spiritual upbringing and the commitment he had as he navigated through the three sects: the Sadducees, Pharisees and Essenes. The prophetic gift manifesting before Vespasian is a testament that spiritual gifts were alive within those committed to the pursuit of the things of God, even in the STP. This perspective cautions against viewing Pentecostalism as something entirely new or limited to the Christian age. Instead, it should be seen as new experiences building on old ones, including the pre-Early Church, Middle Ages, Reformation, Post-Reformation and Modern Pentecostalism.
Reflections
The Spirit of God in the phases of His manifestations should not be limited to one experience of a particular time, nor confined to the Christian era, especially to the section characterised by Pentecostalism. As it is said that the Spirit of God was hovering upon the waters in the beginning, this should be a point of departure, which recognises that His presence has been manifesting differently across ages and times, through those committed to the divine mission. Modern Pentecostalism should not be seen as the resurrection of the Spirit of God in the Church age or God’s manifestation, but rather as a unique dimension of a particular time in the workings of the Spirit of God.
Conclusion
The STP should not be seen as an era of silence for the Spirit of God. The political dominance of the Babylonians, Persians, Medes, Greeks, and Roman Empire during the STP should not be equated with or used to suggest the extinguishing of the works of the Spirit of God. Difficult as it may have been for the fervency of spiritual matters, this does not mean that the Spirit of God was inactive. The religious differences among sects such as the Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes and others should also be viewed as groupings contesting their spiritual identity in their life approaches.
The Pharisees’ identification with the twofold law, the pioneering of synagogues, the resurrection of the dead and the existence of angels should be seen as important foundational pillars of the Early Church, Middle Ages, Reformation, Post-Reformation and Modern Pentecostalism, and Christianity as a whole. This should caution that Pentecostalism is not something born from nowhere, but part of the journey of the Spirit of God, which also includes the Second Temple era, inheriting from the scope of the entire Old Testament.
Josephus’s prophecy, which became a reality with Vespasian’s rise to the Roman Empire, shows that the workings of the Spirit of God have been present even in times, places and situations that are lesser known, and through people who are least expected to be channels or instruments of God’s Spirit manifestation. This has not only been limited to the modern Pentecostal era but also reflects the nature of how the Spirit of God has been active throughout the ages of humanity.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing of this article.
Author’s contribution
A.E.B. is the sole author of this research article.
Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author are responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.
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Footnotes
1. For in-depth about Azusa Street Revival influence see works written by scholars such as Kgatle 2016, Chandomba 2007, Robeck 2007, Clark 2005, Anderson 1996, McGee 1988 and Lindsay 1972.
2. For indepth approaches demonstrating that early Judaism was alive with various conception of the Spirit of God, see Isaac (1971) on the conceptions of the Spirit, Levison (1997a, 1997b) on the Judaism deprived on the subject of the Holy Spirit, Turner (1996) supporting the place of the Spirit of Prophecy in Judaism and Philip (2005) and Rabens (2010) focusing on the early Jewish Pneumatology.
3. For the Greco-Roman literature with relevance in Pauline perspective, see Forbes (1995), Rabens (2010), Engberd-Pedersen, Verbeke (1945), Martin (2006), and Paige (2002).
4. For more repletion with the references to the Spirit around the Dead Scrolls writings, see Sekki (1989), Wernberg-Møller (1961), Frey (2002), Johnston (1960), Seitz (1959–1960) and Kvalvaag (1998).
5. It is important to observe that like the Dead Sea Scrolls; the Pseudepigrapha, Philo, Talmud and other sources not mentioned in Biblical context of Old and New Testament, are sources which do have glimpse about the Spirit of God. They may differ with the doctrinal sentiments contained in the Bible, but they do enlighten around the realities of the Spirit of God.
6. The terminology of uncapturing should be understood from the developmental point of view. It is a view that popularise words for certain expressions born out of surfacing scenarios. This could be viewed from context of words such as tendepreneur and state capture, which have gained meaning within the new democratic dispensation of South Africa.
7. See Paige (1991).
8. The influence of the ‘comparative religions school’ in New Testament studies leads one to draw a quick conclusion that Paul was influenced by Hellenism whenever one finds a conceptual parallel between both Paul and Hellenistic documents. Brich Hoyle (1927:213), mentions several scholars who follow the ‘comparative religions school’. Weiss (1937:435).
9. In Judaism there was a development of the idea that ‘the spirit of prophecy had ceased within Israel with the last of the biblical prophets (SyrBar 85:3; I Macc 4:46, 14:41; cf. Ps 4:9)’. T. S. Caulley, ‘Holy Spirit’, in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell.
10. According to Josephus – ‘the Pharisees have handed down to the people a great many laws by succession from the fathers which are not written in the laws of Moses; and for that reason it is that the Sadducees reject them, and say that people are to esteem those laws to be obligatory, which are in the written word, but are not to observe from the Tradition of the Fathers; and concerning these things it is that great disputes and differences have risen among them (Ant 13: 297)’.
11. See New Testament writing verse such as those in (Mk 7:5 Mt 1 5:2, Gl 1:14).
12. In Furstenburg (2004:18), The documents Josephus gathers that deal with the privileges allotted to Jewish communities are concerned mainly to allow Jews to observe their ancestral laws, including Sabbath, gathering in synagogues, and sending monies to the temple (Ant 14.235, 259–261).
13. In line with Levine (2001a), this article recognises that the synagogue was an extension of furthering the need of the Jewish people, while not in competition or contradiction to the Temple. On the other hand, unlike the Levine (2001b), this article recognises that the Pharisees had an important role in the emergence of the Synagogue. Such important role of the Pharisees should not be equated as a perspective in competition with the Temple or replacing the centrality and importance of the Temple within Jewish people.
14. Ant.18.1.3. See also J.W., 2.8.14.
15. For more historical perspective about the resurrection belief inheritance from the broader roots even before and wider than the Pharisees, see Elledge (2017).
16. Born around 37 AD from a priestly family and the mother from Hasmonean royal order. He is a known Jewish historian writer bridging the gap with the Roman world of his time. He served as a Jewish military leader who later surrendered to the Roman army. He was also graced the Spirit of prophecy. For more details, see Zeitlin (1931), Attridge (1984), Van Henten (2021) and Thackeray (2024).
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