Pentecostalism is a Christian movement that emphasises the gifts of the Holy Spirit (HS). It has grown and changed rapidly since its inception in the early 1900s, with over 63 million adherents in the 1970s (Ng’etich 2023:2). Speaking in tongues, fervent worship and focusing on individual spiritual experiences are characteristics of the Christian religious movement known as Pentecostalism. Pentecostal churches are the fastest growing group worldwide, with a quarter of Christians (Gooren 2004:1).

Pentecostalism faced several technological opportunities and obstacles as it gained traction and expanded worldwide. As Pentecostalism developed, it encountered new technologies, creating a dynamic and intricate interaction. The emergence of mass media and communication technology paralleled the Early Years (1900s–1940s) of Pentecostalism. A significant event in Pentecostal history, the Azusa Street Revival from 1906 to 1909 (Creech 1996:406), was made possible by the revival’s message through printed materials such as newspapers and tracts. As Pentecostalism grew, its followers used new technologies, such as phonographs and radios, to spread gospel music and their message.

The invention of television and the growth of evangelistic crusades were two notable technological developments of the post-war era. Although Southern Baptist, Billy Graham’s preaching reached nearly 217 million people – many of whom were Pentecostal – although he was not Pentecostal himself, through live electronic media (Wacker 2019), and Oral Roberts, referred to as the ‘Son of the Pentecostal movement’, became known in the 1960s in the Pentecostal world and became a father of the charismatic movement in the mainline churches through his television ministry (Synan 2017:1). The two televangelist leaders used this technology to increase their influence and reach. Particularly through television, American Pentecostals like Jim Bakker, Tammy Bakker, Jimmy Swaggart and Benny Hinn were among the first to use ‘Televangelism’; they were able to reach a wider audience with their evangelistic sermons and captivating worship styles (Paul & Saukup 2023:1). The 1960s–1980s Electronic Church of Oral Roberts and Charismatic Renewal, which placed a strong emphasis on experiential worship and the gifts of the HS, further hastened Pentecostalism’s adoption of technology (Bissell 2017:1). The phrase ‘electronic church and electronic evangelisation’ describes using electronic means to spread Christian doctrine and promote worship (Monney 2021:2). Furthermore, Monney shows that today in evangelisation, particularly the small- to medium-scale Methodist churches are struggling to adapt to the fast-evolving technology, with congregants showing a lack of enthusiasm. This might be the case with some churches, especially the mainline churches, but it differs significantly from most Pentecostal churches. Pentecostalism has embraced technology, from the use of sound systems and instruments to the publication of the word.

Pentecostals were in the vanguard of this growth, utilising satellite television, cable networks and video recordings to promote their message. Kyle (2010:3) shows that although ‘the word’ refers to various religious broadcasting methods and organisations, by the late 1980s, it referred to the programmes produced by Pentecostals. In the Age of Digitalisation (the 1990s–present), Pentecostals’ use of technology has changed dramatically since the introduction of the internet, social media and mobile devices into a virtual reality (Afolabi & Babatunde 2021:1). Transnational Pentecostal networks have grown because of Pentecostal churches and ministries being able to contact audiences worldwide through online platforms. To spread their teachings, exchange testimony and foster community, Pentecostal leaders and churches now rely heavily on social media. The likes of Apostle Joshua Selman from Nigeria,¹ whose sermons are accessible across social media (Koinonia Global), and who hosts lives on TikTok and Instagram, and Rorisang Thandekiso² of ‘Jesus this Jesus that Ministries’, who hosts bible sessions on TikTok and Instagram, are proof of the positive impact of technology advancements in Pentecostalism.

Pentecostals now face difficulties because of the digital era. Concerns over the selling of the gospel, the standardisation of Pentecostal worship styles and the possibility that technology diversions could impede spiritual development have been raised by the advent of online platforms, which is a problem exacerbated by technology. Ojo et al. (2024:59) indicate that the younger generation is deeply immersed in technology without interacting with faith or religious practices. He alludes to the fact that youth engagement is a crucial aspect for the growth and future of Pentecostalism. Naidoo (2023:8–9) explains that some of the challenges of technological advancements in Pentecostalism include the misuse of smartphones during church services. Naidoo shows that smartphones cause distractions when congregants forget to turn their notifications off, which may irritate others, especially when they take photos with the flashlight and videos during sensitive moments such as the healing service.

The grassroots style of communication and worship characterised the early Pentecostal movement that is the 1st and 2nd Great Awakenings; believers would frequently congregate in makeshift venues such as tents, barns and homes for meetings where they would sing, pray and share their spiritual experiences (Apata 2021:1). Before the 20th century, Pentecostal communities could not access contemporary communication devices such as telephones and radios. There was little usage of technology during these early meetings. However, technology became a more crucial instrument for disseminating the movement’s message as Pentecostalism grew in popularity and influence. Pentecostal preachers could broadcast their sermons and music to listeners worldwide when radio and television were introduced in the middle of the 20th century. Espinoza (2022:9–10) shows that as the Pentecostal tradition grew, print material was an effective means of evangelisation and a way to grow Pentecostalism. These include books, magazines, songbooks and devotionals that inspired and promoted Pentecostal Theology. The communication later developed to visual media, where people were no longer just reading about revivals but could now also partake in them in their living rooms (p. 22). They used the radio and television to broadcast and evangelise the gospel. Swaggart used these broadcasting channels to speak against issues such as contemporary Christianity. Missionaries used radio during the interwar period to align their mission with geopolitics. The radio missionaries used radio to create evangelicalism’s global ambitions that supported religious communities building (Stoneman 2025:1).

Theological study that emphasises the HS’s role in Christians’ lives has been a defining characteristic of the Pentecostal movement, which emerged in the early 20th century. Ma (2017:2) attributes pneumatology as the key theological contributor of the Pentecostal movement. The HS is the heart of Pentecostalism. The doctrine of the Spirit, which acknowledges the role of the Spirit in enabling believers for witness, worship and service, is central to Pentecostal theology. The work of the Spirit in the early Christian community is exemplified in the book of Acts. A new age of Spirit-empowered witness and mission began with the outpouring of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost (Ac 2:1–4), which is considered a turning point in church history. Pentecostals strongly rely on Jesus’ teachings about the Spirit, especially those in the Gospel of John. It is believed that Jesus’ promise to send the ‘Paraclete’ or ‘Helper’ (Jn 14:16–17, 26; 15:26–27; 16:7–15) ensures that believers will experience the presence and empowerment of the Spirit. The evangelical and holiness movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries provided the backdrop for the Pentecostal concept of the Spirit. William Seymour’s Azusa Street Revival in 1906 is frequently credited with sparking the contemporary Pentecostal movement (Martin 2024:2). Seymour’s focus on the HS’s baptism as a distinct experience from conversion, along with the gift of tongues, became a defining characteristic of Pentecostal theology, as concurred by Oliver (2024:2). The writings of early Pentecostal leaders such as Charles Price Jones, who highlighted the significance of the Spirit’s work in enabling Christians for witness and service, also impacted the development of Pentecostal theology. However, he initially rejected the Pentecostal view of speaking in tongues (Clark & McAllister 2022:3). Numerous significant theological ramifications of the Pentecostal theology of the Spirit occur. Firstly, it highlights how crucial the work of the Spirit is in equipping believers for mission and testimony. This is frequently called the ‘baptism of the Holy Spirit’, and it is seen to be distinct from conversion (Mamani 2022:1). Stevanus et al. (2023:2) argue that the practice of the HS as practised in Christianity today has no biblical basis. Secondly, as proof of the Spirit’s empowerment and presence, the Pentecostal doctrine of the Spirit recognises the significance of spiritual gifts, especially tongues.

One of the cornerstones of the Christian tradition is the Nicene Creed (NC), which was developed in 325 AD (Rorem 2024:1). It declares that the HS is the ‘Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son, who with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified, who has spoken through the prophets’ (Nicene Creed). Despite technical improvements, this statement of the HS’s deity, sovereignty and role in believers’ lives remains unaltered. However, technical advancements can impact how the HS’s work is understood and experienced. The possibility of digital evangelism is one of the main ways technical developments affect the function of the HS. Social media and the internet have made it possible for the gospel to reach a worldwide audience, possibly carrying out the mission of the HS to lead people to faith and convict them of sin. Online platforms have opened new avenues for worship and community development, allowing believers to engage with God and each other in fresh and creative ways. Some people prefer the online church for specific reasons and should be allowed to worship as needed (Danielson 2020:11, Schaper 2020:35; Silverkos 2020:41, quoted by Oliver 2022:7).

Nevertheless, it is essential to understand that virtual worship and digital evangelism cannot replace the HS’s role in Christians’ lives. Instead, they are instruments that can be employed to support and strengthen the activity of the Spirit. The expanded availability of spiritual resources is another effect of technological development. Thanks to the internet, Bible studies, devotionals and prayer applications are just a few spiritual tools individuals may now access. For people who are isolated or unable to attend in-person church services, these materials can be beneficial in fostering and guiding Christians in their faith (Silverkos 2020:41). Instead, they are instruments that can be employed to support and strengthen the activity of the Spirit. The Spirit is still the primary way God works in the world and is necessary for spiritual development, direction and strength.

As technology develops, believers must look to the HS for direction on using these resources to advance the kingdom. This calls for a dedication to using technology in ways that align with the Spirit’s direction and a thorough grasp of the Spirit’s role in believers’ lives. The significance of striking a balance between faith’s digital and physical facets is one of the most critical theological insights into the relationship between faith and technology. It is essential to understand and worship, even though it can be a very effective instrument for supporting and increasing the work of the Spirit. Dein and Watts (2023:2) compared two Sunday virtual services and showed that although technology has been a great tool to assist church services, virtual services have significant limitations. They further show that one aspect of worship may be possible, but the other may not, like the receiving of the holy Eucharist, which is the most essential aspect of the ritual. In addition to adopting technology to augment and improve these experiences, believers place a high value on in-person community and worship.

Recognising the limitations of technology is another critical theological reflection. Although technology can be an effective instrument for supporting and advancing the work of the Spirit, it cannot take the place of the Spirit in Christians’ lives. Believers need to understand that technology is a tool, not a replacement for the activity of the Spirit. Addo (2021:2), in his article, titled ‘Join the Holy Spirit on Zoom’, dives deep into how people have spiritualised the virtual space. Technology is being used to facilitate the work of the HS.

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) poses significant challenges to Pentecostalism, requiring its leaders and adherents to rethink their theology, practices and engagement with the world. Frahm (2019:4) asks: ‘Why at the start of the 4IR do we see a rise in cult-type Pentecostal churches in South Africa?’ The rapid advancement of technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain and the Internet of Things (IoT) has transformed industries, economies and societies worldwide, bringing about unprecedented changes in our daily lives. Frahm (2019:4–5) argues that the beginning of 4IR had a significant influence on cult churches where pastors were telling their members to eat grass, drink petrol and allow themselves to be sprayed with pesticides to effect miracles.

The evolving nature of community and worship is one of the main issues facing Pentecostalism in the 4IR. The fellowship and worship are no longer constituted by gathering under one building. People worship through their television screens, computer, laptop and phone screens. This was effective during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. It was a peak and helpful time for technology in Pentecostalism and the church. Afolabi and Babatunde (2021:2) convey that we witnessed people worship in truth and spirit, as illustrated in John 4:21–23, where people could not gather physically but did so virtually.

The emergence of digital technologies has produced new forms of online community and worship, which can be both a boon and a bane. On the one hand, digital platforms have allowed Pentecostals to connect with God and each other in novel and creative ways; virtual reality worship experiences, social media groups and online churches have broadened the scope of Pentecostalism, allowing it to reach new audiences and offer new avenues for spiritual development. While we pose these questions, Hutchings (2016:1) alludes to the fact that the internet can never replace face-to-face human relationships. Dein and Watts (2023:5) concur with Hutchings that the participation of the embodied community in worship of cyberspace cannot substitute for real interpersonal community, although it is a great tool. On the other hand, the transition to online community and worship presents serious challenges to traditional Pentecostal practices and theology. For instance, internet settings may lose the Pentecostal worship’s emphasis on embodied experience and bodily presence. This poses a question about the HS. Is the HS permeable? Can the HS intercede through screens? Members of the ‘electronic church’ receive blessings and healing through their screens and by touching them. We have seen this multiple times with the televised church services of Prophet Bushiri,³ a Malawian preacher of the Enlightened Christian Church, The Jesus Nation Church. Are these blessings and healing attributed to the HS or technology? Furthermore, the sense of community and belonging essential to Pentecostal identity may be compromised by the absence of physical proximity and in-person engagement. Another issue is the growing dependence of Pentecostalism in the 4IR on technology for spiritual development.

Youvan (2024:1), who advocates for interfaith dialogue in the article, alludes to the emergence of technology in Pentecostalism, which has witnessed a profound shift in the landscape of spiritual thinking. He, too, concurs that these technological advancements significantly affect the weakening of community bonds and the rise of existential crises. Technology can be a handy instrument for spiritual development, but it can also lead to new kinds of distraction and dependency. For instance, social media’s never-ending notifications and updates can seriously divert attention from spiritual exercises like meditation and prayer. Moreover, the 4IR’s focus on innovation and technology may lead to new kinds of exclusion and inequality. For instance, people with access to digital technologies and the know-how to use them efficiently can be at a competitive advantage. As a result, some people and communities may experience new types of the digital divide, where they are left behind by the rapid technological changes.

Pentecostalism is set to flourish in the 4IR despite these obstacles; after all, the 4IR is not a replacement for the HS or a pillar of faith. Vorster et al. (2022:1) agree that the conflict and debate between faith and science is a dialogue sparked by the need to generate data in technology and new perspectives in theology. There is a potential for a positive dialogue between the two. The 4IR is not entirely bad, as it cannot coexist with Pentecostalism. They concur that the search for the truth unifies faith and science. Baloyi and Pali (2023:2) show that the move towards embracing technological advancements, especially in Africa, should be considered an inspiration to be grasped. Pentecostalism’s emphasis on spiritual interaction and experience is one of its main advantages. To successfully navigate the difficulties of 4IR, Pentecostalism’s emphasis on community and support for one another can be a huge help. Pentecostalism’s focus on in-person communication and bodily experience can be a potent remedy for the alienation and detachment of contemporary living in a time when technology is isolating people and groups more and more.

Pentecostal leaders and followers must be prepared to engage in critical reflection and theological rethinking to traverse the challenges of the 4IR successfully. This will necessitate a readiness to investigate novel approaches to community, worship and spiritual development and challenge conventional beliefs and practices. Stressing the value of embodied experience and in-person communication in Pentecostal worship and community is one strategy that could be used. This could entail prioritising physical presence and closeness during worship sessions and establishing chances for in-person communication and community development. Another strategy is to create fresh approaches to religious interaction and inquiry that consider the potential and difficulties presented by the 4IR. This could involve researching new forms of theology that emphasise the value of technology and creativity while noting the limitations and perils of these advancements. This is possible, and it is taking place in other countries. Mujinga (2021:4–8) shows that churches in Ibadan have already adopted information and communication technologies. Ibrahim (2023:1), in his exploration of the media use of Pentecostals, agrees with Mujinga. However, he calls for some of these theories to be revised, as Pentecostals already engage with different forms of technology tools and negotiate and justify their media technology use.

Artificial intelligence’s quick development has generated heated debate and discussion in several academic fields, including theology. Pentecostalism needs to consider how AI will affect its theology and practice as it continues to change how we live and interact with one another. This is agreed by an opponent of 4IR, Schwab (2016:3), when he shows that AI is a technological revolution that will alter our lives and how we relate to each other. While considering the effects that AI may have on Pentecostalism, Ngong (2013:133) argues that God works through prayer and science, not one or the other. This alludes to the fact that AI is not entirely a flawed notion and influence on Pentecostalism. Nell (2023:1) agrees that just as the art of book printing resulted in many people learning over the years, we find ourselves in a similar situation through AI. This is indeed a true reflection of the different impacts that technology has had on various people in Pentecostalism. Nell further shows in the article that AI has both opportunities and challenges for preachers in Pentecostalism.

Nybola (2018), Mdingi (2020) and Hlatswayo (2019), quoted in Banda (2023:4), argue against 4IR in Africa. They show that 4IR through AI and technology will bring about exploitation, exclusion and inequality. With the rapid growth of AI, we might see the fall of Pastors and preachers and eventually churches with the coming of chatbots, meta-AI and Siri. These platforms can converse like human beings. They provide in-depth scripture analysis of the Bible at a click. We have moved into an era where we can hear and analyse the word of God from the comfort of our home at any given time in a technological world. What use do Pastors have? However, it can play a pivotal role in Pentecostalism, especially evangelisation.

The focus on the gift of prophecy, which is regarded as an expression of the power and presence of the HS, is one of the central tenets of Pentecostalism that makes churches popular, especially among Christians in the African diaspora (Kgatle 2023:1). The capacity to receive and convey divine revelation, frequently in the form of spoken words or visions, is known as the gift of prophecy. The ability to prophesy in the setting of AI presents intriguing queries on the nature of revelation and the function of human agency in both receiving and conveying divine truths. Analysing and interpreting prophetic messages with AI-powered technologies is one possible advantage of AI for Pentecostalism.

Natural language processing (NLP) algorithms (Thanaki 2017:1), for instance, could be used to find themes and patterns in prophetic texts, offering fresh perspectives on the nature of divine revelation. Although the NLP has been proven to be effective in analysing scripture, it also poses an ethical question of who receives the HS to interpret the scripture (Nandan et al. 2025:8). The one reading the message cannot possibly be the receiver of the HS as a divine inspiration of interpreting the text in this case, as the message, is already interpreted, nor can it be an object or tool (NLP or Large language models) that does not have a mind or soul. It surely must be the one behind the programming. Pentecostals might reach a larger audience and create online communities centred around prophetic ministry by using AI-powered chatbots to make it easier for prophetic messages to be shared. However, there are also significant theological issues with the application of AI in prophetic ministry. What does divine revelation entail, for instance, in the era of AI? Does human agency’s function in hearing and conveying divine messages get compromised when AI-powered tools are used to evaluate and interpret prophetic communications? Another critical component of Pentecostalism is the focus on the gift of healing, which is understood as the capacity to pray for and receive physical, emotional and spiritual healing (Ayivor 2025:1).

In the context of AI, the gift of healing raises intriguing questions about the nature of health and wellness in the age of AI. One potential advantage of AI for Pentecostalism is the potential to use AI-powered tools to enhance and facilitate healing ministry (Stoddart 2023:1). Artificial intelligence-driven diagnostic technologies may be used to pinpoint medical issues and offer tailored therapy suggestions. Chatbots with AI capabilities could help people in need of healing emotionally and spiritually. Theologically significant problems are also brought up by the application of AI in healing ministry. What does healing look like in the AI era? Does the significance of prayer and faith in the healing process diminish when AI-powered tools are used to identify and cure medical issues? Careful theological consideration and discussion of the implications of AI for Pentecostal theology and practice are necessary to answer these problems. The emergence of transhumanism, a philosophical and technological movement that aims to improve human capacities via technology (Guerreiro et al. 2022:1), is one of the biggest threats AI poses to Pentecostalism.

Important queries concerning the nature of humanity and the interaction between people and technology are brought up by transhumanism. According to Pentecostalism, transhumanism poses a serious threat to conventional notions of human nature and the use of technology in human existence. In the past, Pentecostals strongly emphasised the body’s role as the HS’s temple and have been cautious of technical advancements that aim to improve or alter human potential (Park 2021). Pentecostals, however, also need to acknowledge the potential advantages of AI and other technology for human well-being and flourishing. Artificial intelligence-powered exoskeletons and prosthetic limbs, for instance, can improve the quality of life for people with impairments, and AI-powered diagnostic tools can save lives and improve health outcomes.