Abstract
Background: The advancement of media and technology has significantly influenced religious expression, particularly among Pentecostals, facilitating novel engagement methods, outreach and worship.
Objectives: The study’s setting is global, investigating how contemporary Pentecostalism mediates between traditional and digital religious expressions through various media formats, including social media, live streaming and multimedia worship performances.
Method: Utilising a literary research methodology focused on modern literature, media and technological themes associated with Pentecostalism. Data were collected from scholarly journal articles, church publications, internet sermons, social media posts and films. This was executed to provide a comprehensive overview.
Results: The results indicate that Pentecostal leaders adeptly utilise modern media to enhance religious participation in compelling manners, expanding worldwide outreach while preserving local ties. Media channels allow churches to meet contemporary societal demands by promoting theological education, evangelism and community building beyond geographical boundaries.
Conclusion: Although media and technology provide novel avenues for worship, foster theological innovation and facilitate global development, concerns arise regarding the authenticity of the worship experience, the influence on established traditions and the marginalisation of individuals lacking technological proficiency.
Contribution: This study enhances comprehension of the interplay between Pentecostalism and digital media, offering insights for religious leaders seeking to incorporate technology while preserving their theological principles. It establishes a foundation for future enquiries into how religious communities may leverage technology’s potential while recognising its constraints in spiritual contexts.
Keywords: media technology; Pentecostalism; digital religion; social media; religious communication; online worship.
Introduction
Pentecostalism is a dynamic Christian movement that emphasises direct personal experience of God through baptism with the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues, divine healing and other charismatic manifestations, as described in the biblical account of Pentecost (Anderson 2013; Robbins 2004). According to Wariboko (2017:1–2), African Pentecostalism includes numerous congregations and denominations with varied beginnings. There are three primary categories: spirit-empowered African-initiated and independent churches (AIC), classical Pentecostal churches founded by Western denominations and neo-Pentecostal or charismatic churches such as the Full Gospel Businessmen’s Fellowship International. These churches possess distinct genesis narratives. Advancements in digital technology are generating chances for unparalleled expression and community development. Contemporary, adaptable and dynamic Pentecostal churches actively employ technology to enhance their theological impact and societal perception. Currently, live-streamed services, social media engagement and multimedia worship constitute an essential component of Pentecostal technology. A media technology viewpoint on Pentecostalism examines the expression and transmission of religious authority, spiritual experiences and community advancement. This article aims to examine the influence of technological integration on Pentecostalism through a comprehensive examination of current literature and media.
The link between Pentecostalism and media technologies dates back to the early twentieth century, with radio broadcasts serving as the first platforms for expanding evangelistic outreach. Campbell and Vitullo (2016:78) argue that Pentecostal movements have demonstrated remarkable adaptability in embracing emerging communication technologies, claiming that Pentecostals’ emphasis on direct experience and emotional expression has found natural alignment with media technologies that prioritise immediacy and sensory engagement. The historical connection has undergone a profound transformation in the digital era, as social media platforms and streaming services have emerged as essential instruments for Pentecostal expression and community advancement. Ikiba (2024:28) examines African Pentecostal churches’ adoption of digital technology to overcome geographical barriers, leading to virtual congregations that maintain spiritual connections despite physical separation.
This media awareness is increasingly vital to Pentecostal identity and practice, embodying Meyer’s (2021:428) notion of a conscious effort to leverage the media’s persuasive influence for spiritual objectives. Academic study stresses the theological consequences of media usage in Pentecostalism. Khanyile (2016) examines the intrinsic inclination of Pentecostal theology towards digital platforms that facilitate enhanced engagement and expression. Asamoah-Gyadu (2018:127) asserts that this theological approach has facilitated ‘a reinvention of sacred space that transcends physical church bounds and extends into digital realms’. Nevertheless, media integration presents considerable religious challenges. Campbell and Evolvi (2020:6) assert that employing technology to enhance spiritual experiences prompts challenging enquiries about the essence of religious connection, authenticity and embodiment. Theological factors substantially influence Pentecostal leaders’ perspectives and communication approaches, highlighting the persistent tension between conventional spiritual doctrines and the contemporary digital landscape.
Theoretical framework
Digital religion theories
Theories of digital religion investigate the interaction between religion and technology, focussing on the impact of technology on religion and its reciprocal effects. Expert researchers have extensive knowledge in various disciplines, including psychology, anthropology and sociology. The interdisciplinary approach of psychology, anthropology and sociology provides complementary perspectives to examine the complex link between Pentecostalism and digital media. Sociology explains how digital technologies change religious groups and power systems through analytical methods (Hjarvard 2013). Campbell and Bellar (2022) conducted anthropological investigations on how religious rituals and symbols in the body adapt to virtual contexts, offering information on cultural aspects of religious adaptation. Van Leeuwen and Van Elk (2019) explore the impact of digital mediation on personal religious experiences, identity creation and faith reflection activities. These interdisciplinary domains provide a theoretical framework for understanding Pentecostalism’s use of digital technologies, including its structural, cultural and experiential components.
Theories of digital religion
Sociological perspectives
The reseachers utilise Furseth and Repstad’s (2023) work as a sociological framework to examine religious structures and interactions in digital environments, while Nisa (2018) concentrates on the influence of social media in promoting religious discourse and online religious movements. The examination of religion within the sociology of religion emphasises the impact of social structures and interpersonal interactions in the digital realm (Furseth & Repstad 2023:16). This prompts critical enquiries into the similarities and distinctions between online and offline religious communities. For instance, a physical church gathering occurs in person, whereas an online church congregation convenes through a digital platform. This perspective examines how technology facilitates the normalisation of faith as new religious movements emerge online and established ones adjust to the digital environment. Research on social media that facilitates participation in religious discourse and examines the societal influence of online religious movements constitutes such works (Nisa 2018:24). Technology is transforming communion and activism.
Anthropological perspective
The study employed Campbell’s (2012) research on the anthropology of digital religion. Her research investigates the adaptation of rituals and practices by religious communities in digital contexts. From an anthropological perspective, the behaviours exhibited on online pages, chats, forums, avatars and similar platforms mirror cultural practices and rituals. This technique examines the alterations or adaptations of traditional rituals in online contexts and their underlying significances (Campbell 2012:66). Individuals can engage in virtual pilgrimages by digitally replicating a journey to a sacred location. Online prayer sessions are frequently culturally specific yet available to a worldwide audience. Digital avatars in religious ceremonies exhibit novel, creative expressions utilising religious symbols that integrate innovation with tradition. The relationship between technology and culture is notably dynamic, as evidenced in religious activities.
Psychological perspectives
Van Leeuwen and Van Elk (2019) are among the psychological proponents of digital religion theory, which examines the impact of technology on individuals’ mental processes and spiritual experiences in digital contexts. They argue that technology creates unique channels for religious sense making, shaping people’s interpretation of spiritual experiences. Mandelkow, Austad and Freund (2022) explore how online religious counselling creates therapeutic spaces that meet spiritual and emotional needs, and how digital media can provide meaningful psychological support within religious frameworks.
Furthermore, the psychological perspective highlights personal experiences and cognitive processes in the practice of religion through technology (Van Leeuwen & Van Elk 2019:225). Individuals tend to centre their lives predominantly around religion when in the company of proponents of the same faith. Employing technology for religious rituals offers individuals solace and assurance amid periods of imprisonment and adversity. Online religious counselling has become a valuable resource for addressing spiritual and emotional needs (Mandelkow et al. 2022:288). Furthermore, studies on digital religious content and mental well-being indicate that internet platforms can either facilitate or obstruct spiritual development. This perspective illustrates the personal and significant influence of religion in the internet realm and its capacity to assist individuals.
Key concepts and terms in digital religion theories
Theories of digital religion provide diverse frameworks to comprehend how faith and spirituality are perceived and experienced in the digital era (Ergen 2023:138). Cyber religion is a foundational notion that refers to religious practices carried out only in the internet. This pertains to the practices of conventional religious systems that transitioned to the internet, as well as new religious systems that originated entirely in cyberspace. Cyber religions refer to virtual manifestations of religion or whole new faiths that live solely in cyberspace. Cyber religion is transforming the manner in which individuals practise their faith, making religion more accessible and adaptable across many regions (Düzenli 2024:444).
The concept of online rituals and religious ceremonies adapted for the digital environment is gaining popularity. Remote engagement in religious activities using technology is a significant activity (Khlaif, Salha & Kouraichi 2021:7034). Examples include live worship services where individuals pray collectively at home and meditation sessions that stream a guided experience through an app or the internet. Digital rituals demonstrate how technology can sustain and transform practices. They comprise a blend of antiquity and modernity and have the potential for profitability.
Comprehending the interactions of believers in digital environments necessitates a knowledge of the concept of virtual communities (Campbell 2012:65). Participation may not precisely mirror that of virtual communities established on message boards, forums and other social media platforms. Chat room talks about interfaith interaction, allowing individuals from other faiths to exchange their perspectives. Facebook groups exist for numerous religions. Virtual communities facilitate the establishment of significant relationships independent of geographical constraints. Technology significantly contributes to the creation of inclusive and varied religious communities.
A digital reformulation can present identical religious content to a congregation in many user-friendly formats. The media facilitates the crseation of immersive experiences by integrating multiple forms of media (Shin & Biocca 2018:2801). A video sermon may include a chat window and a designated hashtag for social media. The multi-modal aspect of digital religion encompasses the various activities engaged in by the religious user.
The conceptualisation of the digital sacred examines the conversion of sacred symbols, writings and settings into a digital medium (Campbell & Evolvi 2020:6). This includes Bible applications that facilitate reading the Bible and Qur’an recitation videos on YouTube, thus enhancing global accessibility. The digital sacred demonstrates the adaptability of religious traditions. Technology can encapsulate the essence of divine entities in novel manifestations. The notion of the digital sacred emphasises the utilisation of technology by adherents, particularly among younger demographics, to engage with their religious observances.
The role of technology in shaping modern religious practices
Advancements in technology have granted individuals global access to religious doctrines formerly restricted to local populations. Many individuals can access sermons, sacred texts and discourse through internet channels and engage in worldwide worship. This is particularly beneficial for individuals living at a considerable distance or those who are unable to attend in-person events. Through technology, religious leaders and groups can extend their outreach and enhance inclusivity for more individuals (Alam & Iqbal 2024:7).
Contemporary technology has rendered customisation a significant aspect of religious traditions (Misa 2022:281). Individuals can now engage in personal interactions with God at any time and in any location. For instance, one can establish reminders for prayers, collaborate with personalised spiritual counsellors and explore tailored religious information through applications and websites. This form of customisation enhances the relevance of religious practices, facilitating accessibility for diverse audiences.
Technological advancements are being utilised to establish a communal environment where adherents can create, communicate and worship (Berger 2017). Zoom, Facebook and WhatsApp have facilitated virtual assemblies, particularly for diasporas, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and have been utilised extensively. Individuals unite to engage in worship and form communities. Similar to Zoom, Facebook and WhatsApp facilitate the formation of virtual gatherings during difficult periods such as the epidemic (Yeshua-Katz et al. 2023).
Technology fortifies connections and addresses deficiencies in relation to religion. Technology has significantly influenced and transformed certain rituals (Emelu 2024:4). The holographic sermon, along with an AI-driven spiritual aide, facilitates novel expressions of worship and devotion. The new behaviours, tools and attitudes enrich, reshape and transform the existing ones or generate new ones. For example, consumers can ask those residing at a considerable distance to partake in a virtual mass. These advancements demonstrate how technology continually redefines the boundaries of worship.
Although technology offers advantages, it also poses obstacles and criticisms in forming religions (Winner 2020:61). Some contend that digital religious practices diminish the authentic significance of religious experiences. Moreover, the digital divide presents exclusivity concerns, as individuals lacking access to technology may be alienated from contemporary modes of worship. Addressing these difficulties requires a balanced approach that embraces innovation while preserving the fundamental values and inclusion of religious traditions. These aspects underscore the obstacles that modern religious practices encounter because of digital mediation.
Literature review
Historical development of media in Pentecostalism
The Pentecostals utilised media during the 20th century, establishing a close alliance with the contemporary Protestant media. Pentecostalism depended predominantly on oral tradition and preaching, characterised by vocal, gestural and visible expressions of faith (Agbede 2019:58). These oral traditions fostered community and enhanced the experiential aspect of Pentecostal worship, rendering the movement more approachable to diverse audiences. Evangelistic preaching occurred often, frequently accompanied by spontaneous demonstrations of faith that characterised early Pentecostal assemblies.
With the evolution of the Pentecostal movement, printed pamphlets and newsletters were essential for disseminating teachings and updates (Hove 2021:23). Pentecostal leaders employed these instruments to document their beliefs, disseminate testimony and publicise events to those who would not participate. The movement utilised printed media to expand its membership and establish a permanent record of its theological doctrines and practices. Sermons and worship were transmitted through radio, disseminating the Pentecostal message well beyond the local congregation (Gedzi 2024:2). Preachers attained national prominence through this medium, which disseminated the movement to other countries. Media sources have become more important forums for Pentecostal expression, spreading religious information and linking congregations across geographic boundaries (Horsfield 2015). These communication channels altered the way Pentecostals presented their message, allowing them to reach audiences that were previously unreachable through traditional evangelical approaches.
The rise of television
Television programmes introduced Pentecostal and charismatic church services into households during the 1980s (Jenga 2005:4). Preachings frequently synthesised music and video imagery in multimedia presentations. A notable advancement in Pentecostal audiovisuals is the incorporation of multimedia in church services. Churches began to use films and documentaries to examine Pentecostal activities and disseminate uplifting narratives (Espinoza 2022:28). The worship services employed multimedia projections, lighting effects and music to augment the immersive experience. These alterations elicited heightened emotions among church members, fostering a greater sense of unity with God.
Pentecostalism emphasises vibrant and experiential worship. Since its expansion in the 1990s, the internet has irrevocably transformed Pentecostal media (Andersen Tuttle 2020:7). Websites and social networks have become essential tools for disseminating teachings and marketing events to global audiences. Live streaming systems at church conferences provide supplementary membership for individuals who are unable to attend or with restricted mobility. In addition, access to podcasts and webinars is provided. This transformation on the internet has facilitated the continued relevance and contemporaneity of Pentecostalism.
Current trends in religious digital communication
Social media has emerged as a crucial digital medium for religious organisations to engage with their communities through refined and sophisticated content, thereby reaching a vast audience (Campbell 2020:55). Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram have emerged as essential instruments for organisations to connect with and engage their audiences. Live streaming enhances accessibility to services for a greater number of individuals. Consequently, they can participate in services via the live broadcast. Numerous faith-based organisations utilise social media to establish and maintain online communities.
Podcasts and webinars have become increasingly popular mediums for exploring religion and online education (Chukwuma 2018:13). Podcasts and webinars have gained significant popularity as forums for religious discourse and virtual instruction. Webinars provide an efficient platform for virtual religious education, conversations and seminars. These web applications facilitate gatherings for religious purposes or have previously assisted individuals in this regard. Podcasts and webinars offer immediate engagement between presenters and participants through features such as live chat, polls and question-and-answer sessions. Himmelstoss et al. (2021) observe that ‘the interactive nature of webinars creates digital sacred spaces where participants can experience communal worship and learning despite physical separation’. Religious organisations utilise webinar technology to conduct virtual Bible studies, prayer meetings, theological training and leadership development programmes. Particularly during global disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic, webinars became essential tools for maintaining religious community continuity. According to Mpofu (2023:152), adopting webinar platforms fundamentally transformed religious education methodologies, creating hybrid learning environments that blend traditional theological pedagogy with digital accessibility and interactive engagement. Together, these digital communication formats have expanded the reach of religious messaging while creating new forms of virtual religious community and educational practice.
Individuals prefer online giving and fundraising, as electronic tithing and mobile donation platforms provide effortless contributions irrespective of physical presence. This is an additional trend. Crowdfunding platforms facilitate fundraising for religious organisations and motivate individuals to support specific initiatives and causes (Bogdan 2024:107). Despite certain hurdles, including the necessity for openness and addressing concerns related to the digital divide, the convenience and capacity to engage global supporters through online fundraising are significantly advantageous. This indicates that religious organisations are utilising technology to secure loans for fundraising purposes.
In response to COVID-19, some churches have chosen to conduct virtual worship services through live streaming or Zoom platforms (Singarimbun 2021:97). Integrating technology with traditional practices enables believers to enhance their worship experience. Churches can integrate digital Scripture displays alongside printed Bibles, use projection systems to enhance rather than replace congregational singing, and develop hybrid worship formats that honor embodied rituals while expanding participation through live streaming. This approach allows believers to worship together in person while also accommodating those who cannot physically attend. Additionally, virtual worship services enable individuals globally to congregate for services and connect with diverse faith communities.
Integrating technology with faith demonstrates that faiths can adapt to contemporary circumstances (Kong & Woods 2018:150). Religious organisations can facilitate connections and communication among individuals through the utilisation of technology. These patterns illustrate the evolving relationship between religion and technology, as spirituality seeks to maintain its significance in the contemporary era.
Analysis of media platforms in religious contexts
Media platforms transformed the engagement between religious organisations and their communities, with social media playing a significant role (Elsafir 2024:69). Religious communities disseminate lessons, motivational messages and information regarding forthcoming events using Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. The interactive characteristics of social media foster debate and participation, enabling users to remark, share and react to content, thereby cultivating a sense of belonging. Religious organisations typically utilise these channels to cultivate digital communities that complement their actual congregations. They engage with a younger, technologically adept audience. Because of the immediacy and constant accessibility of social media, religious organisations utilise it for outreach purposes.
Currently, individuals can engage in worship and events in real time from any location globally because of live streaming (Blanchard 2021:29). Individuals can utilise media such as YouTube, Facebook Live and Zoom to participate in the services electronically, maintaining a sense of connection even when they are unable to attend in person. Live streaming worship has facilitated individuals in maintaining their religion during challenging periods such as COVID-19 attributable to the internet. Live streaming is utilised for a variety of purposes, including conferences, Bible studies and prayer services. The capacity to participate in activities such as chatting simultaneously fosters a sense of community in a digital worship setting.
With technological advancements, numerous churches transitioned to internet operations (Spadaro 2014:1). This has led to the emergence of online worship experiences. Virtual worship events frequently incorporate customised music, visuals and activities that encourage participant engagement. Numerous churches and religious organisations have developed specialised platforms and applications to facilitate these services, assuring user-friendliness and accessibility. Online worship enables you to select your level of engagement through on-demand recorded sermons and optional prayer sessions. This flexibility enables individuals from diverse lifestyles or schedules to participate and incorporate their faith into it.
Digital evangelism strategies encompass a diverse array of methods for faith-based organisations to enhance participation on social media (Soukup et al. 2019:21). Digital evangelism employs social media advertisements, email newsletters and content marketing aimed at the specified audience for their campaigns. Digital evangelism employs search engine optimisation (SEO) to enhance the visibility of faith-based content online. Distributing videos akin to messages and discussions on TikTok, and YouTube effectively engages younger demographics. By employing these tactics, religious intervention agencies can expand their outreach, attract new adherents and maintain relevance.
Although media outlets present several chances for engaging with religion, they also pose obstacles. This characteristic modifies reality, as one interacts with it without truly entering it. The chasm between digital haves and have-nots is exacerbated by the lack of access to technology. Religious organisations should leverage digital platforms while ensuring that they remain aligned with their interests and community welfare (Pesce, Neirotti & Paolucci 2019:3). Religious institutions must evaluate technology and its constraints. They must be vigilant on the limitations of technology as they increasingly embrace digital advancements.
Impact assessment of digital media on religion
The authority of religions is evolving because of digital media and facing greater challenges from distractions and divides than ever encountered (Reed 2018). In the digital realm, religious authority emerges at a decentralised level as individuals outside the institution assume the role of spiritual leaders. Social media enables fervent individuals to disseminate teachings, conduct prayers or provide spiritual counsel, so competing with the authority of traditional clergy. An increasing number of individuals are gaining access to religious leadership, which creates concerns over accountability (Cooper 2022).
Digital media has revolutionised the development of religious organisations, allowing for the existence of digital faith communities that are not geographically limited (Adeoye & Noorhayati 2024:24). The formation of online communities has been facilitated by digital media groups. There is also a space where people can share their experiences. These online communities help physical congregations by providing a sense of belonging to people who are geographically separated or unable to attend in person. Online platforms encourage dialogue among people of different religions, which promotes unity. Nonetheless, certain online interactions can be unsatisfactory. They limit the profundity and durability of these communities. By incorporating digital Scripture displays alongside printed Bibles, using projection systems to enhance rather than replace congregational singing and developing hybrid worship formats that honour embodied rituals while expanding participation through livestreaming, believers can worship together in person.
Digital media has facilitated the emergence of novel forms of spirituality (Evolvi 2021). Online worship services provide customised prayer gatherings. They facilitate virtual sessions that provide consumers with spiritual practices. Numerous experiences incorporate multimedia components, including music and graphics, to establish emotional atmospheres. Despite the advantages of these enhancements, they raise concerns about the authenticity and profundity of virtual spiritual encounters. Balancing the integration of digital spirituality with the preservation of traditional spiritual activities presents a significant challenge.
The integration of digital media into religious life offers both advantages and obstacles for the comprehension and execution of authority, community, spirituality and theology (Nurcahyo 2024:5). Digital platforms enhance the accessibility and inclusivity of religion; but they must be navigated carefully to preserve the authentic, profound and community elements of faith traditions. By deliberately employing these tools, they can transcend their limitations and enhance spiritual lives and therefore ensuring that faith retains its significance in the contemporary technology-oriented landscape.
Future implications of digital media in religion
Emerging technology will revolutionise religious practices and experiences, offering both unprecedented opportunities and challenges (Agarwal et al. 2020:2). Innovative technologies, such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality, are used to improve experiences across religions and civilisations, as evidenced by the use of VR headsets at Japanese temples (Lin 2020). A plethora of technological advancements assist folks in overcoming their obstacles. They can use AI-powered chatbots to get timely and consistent answers to their questions (Kautish & Khare 2022). These technologies can have a tremendous impact on faith. It provoked ethical discussions about authenticity, the importance of human leadership and the commercialisation of spiritual experiences (Peus et al. 2012).
The integration of contemporary technologies in religion offers both benefits and drawbacks (Bideci & Bideci 2024). Furthermore, some persons may obtain expensive technology, but others may lack access to them. The growing dependence on social media amplifies apprehensions over cybersecurity, data privacy and the misuse of religious material. The church and mosque ought to tackle these concerns without utilising new technologies to enhance public accessibility.
To traverse this changing landscape, religious leaders must devise innovative strategies that integrate technology while upholding core principles (Mala & Hunaida 2023:175). Leaders must improve digital literacy to understand the tools and channels utilised by their congregations. Religious leaders should set criteria for the acceptance of technologies while developing guidelines for their ethical use. Collaboration among technologists, theologians and community members can aid religious leaders in achieving a balanced integration of innovation and tradition, which technology can enhance.
Future studies should investigate the impact of digital media and developing technologies on religion over time (McClure 2017:482). In addition, research may investigate the impact of virtual augmented reality on spiritual practices and the role of artificial intelligence in theological discourse. Investigating the digital divide, its ramifications for inclusion and the ethical challenges related to the commercialisation of religious content is essential. Interdisciplinary research in religion, sociology and technology can enhance the understanding of the integration of these intricate systems and promote appropriate methodologies.
As technology progresses, its ramifications for religion will become increasingly significant and require continuous reflection (Mokyr, Vickers & Ziebarth 2015:33). Religious organisations and emerging leaders have a unique potential to advance their efforts through the use of technology. However, they must also confront challenges. By advancing ethical values, promoting inclusion and endorsing creative research, they may ensure that technology enhances spiritual and communal development while preserving religious traditions.
Discussion
Theory of digital religion and practices of Pentecostal media
This study’s findings correspond with Campbell and Evolvi’s (2020:6) conceptualisation of digital religion, which explores the transformation of religious rituals and communities through digital technologies. The swift integration of digital platforms by Pentecostal churches illustrates a nuanced interplay between conventional corporeal worship and virtual manifestations of religion. The literature review indicates that Pentecostal churches have historically exhibited significant adaptability in adopting new communication technologies (Campbell & Vitullo 2016:78), a trend that persists in the digital era through their enthusiastic embrace of social media, livestreaming and multimedia worship formats. Analysed through sociological perspectives on digital religion (Furseth & Repstad 2023:16), the online transformation of Pentecostal worship practices signifies a technological adaptation and a profound change in the formation and maintenance of spiritual connections within religious communities. The online platforms enable Pentecostal services to establish what Nisa (2018:24) characterises as novel arenas for religious dialogue and involvement, permitting adherents to connect with their faith irrespective of geographical constraints.
Authenticity and embodiment in virtual Pentecostal encounters
A prominent subject arising from this investigation is the authenticity of digital Pentecostal encounters. The experience aspect of Pentecostal worship, marked by tangible manifestations of the Spirit, prompts significant theological enquiries when adapted to virtual settings. As Asamoah-Gyadu (2018:127) contends, digital platforms have enabled ‘a reinvention of sacred space that transcends physical church boundaries and extends into digital realms’. However, this transition may diminish the corporeal manifestations fundamental to Pentecostal theology. The anthropological perspective of digital religion theory (Crowley & Chun 2021:297) elucidates the adaptation of Pentecostal rituals in online environments while preserving their spiritual meaning. The physical act of laying on hands, fundamental to numerous Pentecostal healing rituals, has been reinterpreted through virtual prayer sessions in which participants touch their screens during prayers, resulting in novel ritual expressions that merge innovation with tradition (Fernandez 2024:85). This adaption exemplifies what Meyer (2021:428) characterises as a deliberate endeavour to utilise media’s persuasive power for spiritual purposes.
Authority and democratisation in digital Pentecostal environments
The democratisation of voice facilitated by digital platforms profoundly affects the dynamics of authority within Pentecostal groups. Cooper (2022) observes that online platforms have enabled persons beyond conventional church frameworks to take on the responsibilities of spiritual leaders and theological interpreters. This transition corresponds with the psychological viewpoint of digital religion theory, which underscores the role of technology in enabling individual spiritual expression (Van Leeuwen & Van Elk 2019:225). While this democratisation can enhance participation and foster diverse expressions of faith, it also presents challenges to established authority structures within Pentecostal denominations. The rise of spiritual influencers without formal theological education signifies a shift in the construction and preservation of religious authority in digital environments, as noticed by Campbell (2020:55). This conflict between institutional authority and individual spiritual expression illustrates the broader discussions as Pentecostalism evolves in the digital age.
Concerns regarding the digital divide and inclusivity
The shift to technology-driven Pentecostal practices presents substantial challenges regarding diversity within churches. The theoretical framework underscores that the digital divide poses a significant challenge to religious groups in digital environments (Winner 2020:61). The findings of this study reveal that various demographic groups may experience marginalisation within digitally mediated Pentecostal communities: elderly individuals who are apprehensive about modern technologies, economically disadvantaged individuals lacking access to digital devices, and those residing in areas with inadequate internet connectivity. These findings correspond with Manyonganise’s (2022:239) study on digital exclusion within religious contexts, illustrating how technology obstacles might exacerbate prevailing socioeconomic disparities. The theoretical concept of the ‘digital sacred’ (Campbell & Evolvi 2020:6) helps explain why this exclusion is particularly problematic in Pentecostal contexts, as it limits access not only to the community but also to experiences considered spiritually transformative and essential.
Monetisation of spiritual experience
A significant discovery from this investigation pertains to the market-driven strategy for ministry enabled by the integration of digital media. The commercialisation of online Pentecostal content prompts ethical enquiries regarding the monetisation of spiritual experiences, reflecting the tension between religious beliefs and market-oriented strategies in digital environments, as noticed by Pesce et al. (2019:3).
This commercialisation manifests in several forms: premium membership models for accessing spiritual content, donation-based live streaming, and the rise of spiritual influencers whose online presence integrates ministry with personal branding. These developments represent what Khanyile (2016) describes as the intrinsic inclination of Pentecostal theology towards digital platforms that facilitate enhanced engagement but potentially at the cost of commodifying sacred experiences.
Implications for future Pentecostal practice
The integration of digital media into Pentecostal practice necessitates the development of a more sophisticated theological approach that maintains core Pentecostal integrity while embracing technological innovation. This indicates promising pathways for Pentecostal communities to navigate the digital future while preserving their distinctive theological emphases. Future research should explore the long-term impacts of online presence on Pentecostal identity, particularly examining how virtual expressions of faith might transform core theological commitments over time.
Conclusion
The influence of media and technology on Pentecostalism is affecting a significant transformation in how religious communities engage with faith, convey their messages and influence public perception. Pentecostal churches utilise social media and technological devices to transform perceptions of religion and initiate discussions previously unconsidered. The research highlights that the novel application of media, including live streaming, social media and media presentations, has expanded the global reach of Pentecostalism while fostering a profound connection with local churches.
An in-depth analysis of the literature and media demonstrates how Pentecostal leaders utilise technology to foster dynamic activities and communal cohesion. Media platforms facilitate the discourse of essential topics such as theological education, evangelism and community building across geographical borders, enabling the establishment of significant relationships. These digital platforms enable Pentecostal churches to adapt their activities to the requirements of a constantly evolving contemporary society.
However, the incorporation of media and technology into Pentecostal practices is not without its challenges. Thorough attention must be directed to the dilution of the conventional worship experience, apprehensions regarding genuine digital spirituality and the alienation of those lacking technological proficiency. Pentecostal leaders must closely evaluate the application of technology to avoid transgressing theological or cultural boundaries.
This research indicates that media and technology will be pivotal in the future of Pentecostalism. The continual evolution of media and technology offers unprecedented opportunities for novel expressions of worship, theological exploration and worldwide engagement. Pentecostal churches are strategically positioned to use these innovations.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on the research that stems from the Southern African Society of Pentecostal Studies conference, North-West University, 25–27 February 2025.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
N.M. and R.T. both contributed equally to this research article.
Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.
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