Humankind has transitioned through three major industrial revolutions, namely, the First Industrial Revolution (1IR: 1760–1850), the Second Industrial Revolution (2IR: 1865–1914) and the Third Industrial Revolution (3IR: 1960–2000s). The 21st century has ushered in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which introduced artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things, bioengineering, 3D printing, nanotechnology, robotics, virtual reality and augmented reality. It still continues with rapid digital advancements that affect all spheres of human life thus, affecting religious experiences because such experiences occur and are practised within a context. Pentecostalism emerged (originated in the United States and expanded to other parts of the world) within the past 118 years with the quest of experiencing baptism in the Holy Spirit. Technology (AI, social media and digitisation) is advancing rapidly in the 21st century and affects theological understanding, experience and reflection among various Christian traditions.
This article intends to focus on a utilitarian view as a framework to determine how social media and digitisation impact Pentecostal-Charismatic religious practice in South African townships. The question this article seeks to answer is:
The article combines Pentecostalism and AI to conceptualise a hybrid research method that is an intersection of one of the forms of Christian faith and AI.
The article demonstrates that the emergence and use of social media and digitisation do not undermine the highly regarded role of the Holy Spirit among South African township Pentecostal-Charismatic practice instead it enhances it.
The article demonstrates that the emergence and use of social media and digitisation do not undermine the highly regarded role of the Holy Spirit among South African township Pentecostal-Charismatic practice; instead they enhance it.
The article contributes to current discussions on the interaction between artificial intelligence and religion.
Digitisation, which is the process of computerising almost everything in life, has introduced social media in various platforms, Facebook being the most popular and lately, TikTok. The people of South Africa are not immune to digitisation and the use of social media. The 2022 South African census shows that the population has surpassed 63 million (StatsSA
Against this background, this article uses Mill’s (
The township Pentecostal-Charismatic Christians in the Gauteng province are from various denominations, including Ethiopian Churches and the African Indigenous or Independent churches of South Africa (Mzondi
This development demonstrates that theology happens in a context and context influences theology. The quest to position the centrality of the Holy Spirit in Christianity is traced to the Apostles’ Creed crafted in 215 AD. Pursuant to this quest, Grenz (
Whatever authority the Bible carries as a trustworthy book, it derives from the trustworthiness of the divine revelation it discloses and ultimately from the Spirit who infallibly speaks through it. (p. 402)
Notably, the Apostles’ Creed (see Game
I believe in God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth.
I believe In Jesus Christ, His only Son our Lord who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died and was buried.
I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Christian Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen. (pp. 258, 259, 260)
The role and influence of the Holy Spirit (alongside the belief in the triune God) are further captured in the Nicene Creed, which was adopted in 325 AD (Nicene Creed 2017):
We believe in one God, the Father, the almighty, maker of heaven and …
We believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Only Begotten Son of God, …
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son.
With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. (n.p.)
The Nicene Creed was crafted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 after the Roman Emperor Constantine I asked several bishops (McLarnon
Since the task of engaging the role of Holy Spirit has been ongoing, post the Nicene Creed, it is important to note that the Holy Spirit is central to the followers of Christ. Hence centuries later, Fee (
Pentecostalism emerged in the context of the holiness movement in the United States (US) (Dayton
Orality of liturgy; narrative theology and witness; maximum participation at levels of reflection, prayer, and decision making, and therefore a reconciliatory form of community; inclusion of dreams and visions into personal and public forms of worship that function as a kind of ‘oral icon’ for the individual and the community; an understanding of the body–mind relationship that is informed by experiences of correspondence between body and mind as, for example, in liturgical dance and prayer for the sick. (p. 201)
On the other hand, Macchia (
From an African perspective, some African Pentecostal scholars describe African Pentecostalism. Nel (
African Pentecostalism refers to the distinctive modes of being Pentecostal that have come about as a result of processing and assimilating some African religious and cultural values such as the extended family life and the significance of the dead. (p. 140)
Kgatle (
African Pentecostalism is characterised by its focus on the supernatural. The belief in the supernatural is not degraded by modernism and natural science. African Pentecostalism is embedded in African maps of the universe. Pentecostals do not reject the spiritual forces perceived in traditional African religions. They rather redefine them, and engage in the struggle against them. African Pentecostals take the Bible very seriously. (p. 3)
Mzondi (
The view argued that Pentecostalism has not been static but evolved into various identified phases. These phases began with the establishment of: The Apostolic Faith Mission, amaZion, the ZCC, ibandla lamanazaretha, St John Apostolic faith Mission; second are Pentecostal mission churches: The Assemblies of God and the Full Gospel Church, Africa Gospel Church and Back to God; third are independent Pentecostal churches that emerged in the mid-1980s, followed by the introduction of the Universal Church of God, the last phase is the introduction of T. B. Joshua in South Africa and his adherents. The [
President Cyril Ramaphosa introduced the concept of Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) to the South African discourse, after his meeting at World Economic Forum at Davos, Switzerland (Rossouw
Although the digital world and religion have been apart for some time, recent developments have shown the two spheres interacting with the religious world embracing digital technology. Artificial intelligence is being applied to Christian education in Vietnam (Tran & Nguyen
Such use underscores Jesus teaching that he came from the Father and later promised his disciples that he will ask the Father to send them the Holy Spirit (Jn 14:15–16, 26). The Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples on the day of Pentecost (Ac 2:1–4) and continues to be present in the universal church. The global Pentecostal movement that emphasises the role of the Holy Spirit in its ecclesiology and theology is considered part of the wider Christian traditions and the universal church. The Gauteng province township Pentecostal-Charismatic Churches (PCCs) are considered a part of the global Pentecostal movement (Mzondi
Hence, the article seeks to answer the following sub-questions related to AI and the Holy Spirit: (1)
Having discussed the literature on Pentecostalism and AI, the article now focuses on Mill’s (
The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. (p. 9)
According to this view, practising right actions stirs individuals to continue such behaviour as such actions result in gaining happiness. Such practices identified among South African township Pentecostal-Charismatic contexts led to answer the main question:
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Since the western world experienced the proliferation of digital technologies (Hjarvard
The digital age can be defined as a historical period marked by the widespread use of digital technologies in different aspects of human activity, including the economy, politics and most forms of human interaction. (Fernández-Macías
Digital technologies have accelerated secularisation in the western world (Hjarvard
For many years, most of the information about the township Pentecostal-Charismatic practices in South Africa has been available on television, radio, print and electronic media, and recently on social media (Kgatle
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic acted as a major catalyst for the widespread adoption of social media. Most township PCCs relied on social media to reach their members. For example, churches used Facebook to stream their church services and sermons and WhatsApp to disseminate short videos to believers (Mzondi
In relation to politics, two scholars provide how social media aided national elections parties. Frahm-Arp (
Currently, most township PCCs leaders rely on Facebook, TikTok and WhatsApp as an extension of their pastoral role (see Barentsen
Interestingly, Grace Bible Church is an example of a township PCC that has digitised their ecclesiological practices. The church is live-streaming its main Sunday morning service from the main church in Soweto to many branches. Frahm-Arp (
[
Undoubtedly, the COVID-19 pandemic, the past national elections and the example of digitisation of Grace Bible Church demonstrate that township PCCs managed its transition from one mode of religious practice to other without losing their Pentecostal-Charismatic identity, namely, the emphasis on the role of the Holy Spirit in their ecclesiology and theology. They have effectively used social media and digitisation as a pastoral care tool.
Given the widespread adoption of social media and digitisation among PCCs, it is important to highlight the relevance of the
Township PCC members and non-members are target audiences of diverse social media posts and daily free-to-air religious TV programmes, aired on the Multi Choice platform, that attract them to various PCC. Various social media posts and TV programmes show that some, not all, PCC leaders have opted to use tangible objects such as anointed water, holy oil, badges, car stickers, among others to attract believers to their churches (Banda
Khanyile (
There are two distinct views of the commercialisation of religion, the one is a more positive appreciation of the ‘prosperity gospel’ or the gospel of health and wealth, and the other a more negative perspective that regards it as a practise that only benefits a few and leads to the abuse of followers.
Unlike NPC, PCC do not use tangible objects but use professionally organised lively church services to minister to their members and upload short video clips on social media and play recorded services aired on free-to-air TV programmes to attract the viewers. They often attract the young generation using lively church services that combine liturgy and technology (Mzondi
Unfortunately, PCCs, including township PCCs, have been accused of abusing the Holy Spirit (see Kgatle & Anderson
Dahir (
Township PCC leaders actively promote the use of free or subscribed, downloadable digital Christian resources. (Faverio et al.
The above underscores the prevalence of the 4IR among the PCC community. The township PCC leaders and members own a smartphone. A smartphone is considered a small computer in one’s hand. They use it to send and receive Christian resources and to promote what they like; others can respond by texting or using like or dislike icons. In addition, everyone in the church can produce electronic or digital Christian content and circulate it to others through this small computer (smartphone). Thus, it is not about only the leader doing ministry, but everyone being part of the ministry.
A normal Pentecostal church service that was characterised by singing without using a music instrument and emphasising rendering music through a solo, duets, trios, quartets and choirs later adopted the use of an accordion in the 1990s. A digital shift occurred when an electric keyboard and lead guitar and bass guitar and sound system were embraced. This was later followed by advertising church services through digital posters on social media platforms. Consequently, PCCs usually use a sound system and live music during church services to produce own content that is later uploaded on WhatsApp, YouTube and Facebook to appeal to a wider audience.
This self-produced digital content among township PCCs covers an entire church service. Its features vary from one church to other and largely depend on the financial strength of the local church. Some churches use a worship team consisting of a live two-instrument player or more players accompanied with a vocalist; and then project songs and the worship team during the praise and worship session and later the read Scripture(s) and the preacher as well as healing and deliverance sessions. Others follow the same routine but do not use live projecting of the worship team and the preacher activities. Some others just use live music services with a two-instrument player or more accompanied with vocalists and read the Scriptures during the preaching session.
Township PCCs promote individual Bible reading for personal devotion and during church and home services; this is a shift traced from the Reformation’s emphasis on the common priesthood of believers. The introduction of Bible apps enabled township PCCs to digitise the church service as the preacher or pastor and congregants shifted from hard copy Bible reading to soft copy Bible reading.
Finally, a few township PCCs broadcast online service because they can afford the related costs. Others use pre-recorded sessions during church services or buy slots from religious TV stations available on Multi Choice to air their church service to appeal to a wider audience. Pre-recorded sessions usually end with a preacher making an altar call for repentance and praying for the sick. They then provide details on opportunities for financial partnership, and viewers are encouraged to send prayer requests to contact number displayed on the screen.
The above discussion demonstrates that social media and digitisation advance the missional task of PCCs as they reach a wider audience of church members and non-church members. These also enhance ecclesiological connection among members. This then helps to answer the above-mentioned questions about the Holy Spirit and AI, with special focus on social media and digitisation, namely: (1)
This section demonstrates that township PCCs benefit from using social media and digitisation without losing their Pentecostal experiences, thus, emphasising that AI does not hinder the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit continues to work through social media and digitisation, and it may be inferred that it will continue to do so henceforth. The third question, that is, ‘
Thompson (
All problem-solving, including AI, must be addressed through the motivation of service, and the systems should be reliable, easy to use, and helpful to honour God. Social and ethical implications of the work should be considered, and beneficial aspects of computing must be pursued. (p. 48)
Digitisation and social media provide the end-user with a wide range of religious benefits and ethical challenges. The above section noted the benefits of social media and digitisation for township PCCs. It is amazing how Christians can use a smartphone to search for Christian information, connect with other believers and create their own digital religious contents. This section explores negative aspects of social media and digitisation among township PCC leaders and members.
Before that, it is necessary to first acknowledge that humans, although in a fallen state, are still God’s image (
This section specifically focuses on the missiological and soteriological aspects of social media. Undoubtedly, social media and digitisation should promote missiological and ecclesiological activities alongside addressing existential issues of members and the community.
Negative elements of social media and digitisation should also be brought into the discussion. Firstly, consider the issue of community and individual identity crisis. Waweru (
A soteriological and missiological understanding shows that only God saves, not social media and digitisation. Yes, God can use social media and digitisation to reach humankind as seen in the story of providing Israel with water from the rock, Jonah and the tree, and Balaam and the donkey. God also used a star to guide the shepherds to Jesus’ birthplace, and later used a cloud when Jesus Christ ascended to heaven. Hence Langford (
Perhaps the biggest thing that our creation, development, and use of AI has revealed to us is that, within our good creation, we continue to discover and build novel means to empower and extend our capabilities; in so doing, we create new things that may be participating in God’s work, but we do not determine the shape, nor are we the ultimate cause, of the kingdom of God. (p. 91)
This emphasises the importance of leader accountability among PCCs. Social media and digitisation are susceptible to abuse as noted in the recent conduct of three leaders from the prophetic movement namely, Paseka Motsoeneng, Shepherd Bushiri and Alf Lukau. These religious leaders uploaded questionable video content claiming to have divine experiences. Paseka Motsoeneng claimed to have visited heaven (Ingram
According to Rich (
The influence and role of the Holy Spirit have been central in theological reflections and experiences since the first century AD deliberations that resulted in the crafting of the Apostles’ Creed and the Nicene Creed and, centuries later, during the emergence of the Pentecostal movement. In the twentieth century, technological development introduced AI. The latter has also influenced and affected the views on the influence and role of the Holy Spirit in ecclesiology. The article then asked three questions related to AI and the Holy Spirit: (1)
The article discussed that the introduction of AI, with special reference to social media and digitisation shows that township PCC leaders began embracing social media and digitisation prior to the COVID-19 pandemic resulting in the digitisation of their services and production of digital Christian resources uploaded on WhatsApp, TikTok, Facebook and YouTube. These leaders and church members demonstrate that AI benefits PCCs and does not hinder their dependence on the Holy Spirit. It also shows that there is synergy between social media and digitisation and the highly regarded influence of the Holy Spirit in a digitised ecclesiology. This discussion also cautioned against the commercialisation of the gospel through social media and emphasised the responsibility of leaders to be role models of promoting ethical use of social media and digitisation instead of emulating the unethical production and use of social media by two prominent PCC leaders.
This article is based on a conference paper originally presented at the Southern African Society for Practical Studies under the topic ‘The role of the Holy Spirit in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: Reflections on Nicene Creed’, held at the North-West University, on 25–27 February 2025. The conference paper, titled ‘The nexus between social media and digitisation and the dependence of the Holy Spirit in the South African township Pentecostal-Charismatic contexts’, was subsequently expanded and revised for this journal publication. This republication is done with permission from the conference organisers.
The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Abraham M.M. Mzondi: Conceptualisation. The author confirms that this work is entirely their own, has reviewed the article, approved the final version for submission and publication, and takes full responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
The author declares that all data that support this research article and findings are available in the article and its references.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.